Grammar

June 2 Lisa and I went over this entire grammer page together.

TALKING ABOUT NUMBERS 

This is an English lesson which teaches you all about numbers, including: ordinal numbers, fractions, decimals, dates,big numbers, and even the numbers that appear in the names of Kings and Queens. 

Ordinal Numbers 

Ordinal numbers are numbers used to indicate order, for example: 1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd.

Most of them are formed by adding ‘th’ to the end of regular numbers, for example: fourth (four-th), sixth (six-th), seventh (seven-th). However, there are a few irregular ones: first (1^st), second (2^nd), third (3^rd), fifth (5^th), ninth (9^th) and twelfth (12^th). Here is a list of the ordinal numbers from 1^st to 19^th.

• 1st – first*
• 2nd – second*
• 3rd – third*
• 4th – fourth
• 5th – fifth*
• 6th – sixth
• 7th – seventh
• 8th – eighth
• 9th – ninth*
• 10th – tenth
• 11th – eleventh
• 12th – twelfth*
• 13th – thirteenth
• 14th – fourteenth
• 15th – fifteenth
• 16th – sixteenth
• 17th – seventeenth
• 18th – eighteenth
• 19th – nineteenth

For multiples of ten, the ‘y’ at end of the word changes to ‘ie’ and the suffix ‘eth’ is added.  For example, ‘twenty’ becomes ‘twentieth’. Here is a list of the multiples of ten from 20 to 90:

• 20^th  – twentieth
• 30^th – thirtieth
• 40^th – fortieth
• 50^th – fiftieth
• 60^th – sixtieth
• 70^th – seventieth
• 80^th – eightieth
• 90^th – ninetieth

Note: You say 100^th as ‘one hundredth’.

Fractions 

In order to say a fraction, we say the top number (numerator) as a regular number and we say the bottom number (denominator) as an ordinal number. For example, 1/8 is spoken as ‘one-eighth’.

If the top number is more than 1, then we pronounce the ordinal number as a plural. For example, 3/8 is spoken as ‘three-eighths. Here are some examples:

3/5 – three-fifths

7/12 – seven-twelfths

99/100 – ninety-nine one hundredths

There are two irregular fractions: half is used in place of second and quarter is used in place of fourth. For example, ½ is not said as ‘one-second’, it is called ‘one-half’, ‘a half’ or just ‘half’. Likewise, ¼ is not spoken as ‘one-fourth’, it is called ‘one-quarter’ or ‘a quarter’.

1 ½ – one and a half

2 ¼ – two and a quarter

For fractions above 1, the terms of measurement is made plural:

1 ½ hours – one and a half hours

1 1/3 miles – one and a third miles

2 1/8 tons – two and one-eighth tons

Big Numbers 

We do not make hundreds, thousands and millions plural when the number in front is more than 1. For example:

100 – one hundred

200 – two hundred

1000 – one thousand

4000 – four thousand

1,000 000 – one million

5,000 000 – five million

However, when there is no number in front, we do add an ‘s’. For example:

Hundreds of pounds

Thousands of eggs

Millions of dollars

The word ‘and’ is used between the hundreds and the tens in a number. For example:

420 – four hundred and twenty

2, 765 – two thousand, seven hundred and sixty-five

When the first figure is 1, we can say other ‘one’ or ‘a’. For example:

“He lived for a hundred years”

“You owe me one hundred dollars”  

Dates

To pronounce the date within a month, we use ordinal numbers and the word ‘of’. For example:

15^th March – fifteenth of March or March the fifteenth

12^th September – twelfth of September or Setember the 12th

To pronounce a year before 2000 we usually pronounce it in two parts. For example:

1922 – 19/22 – nineteen twenty-two

1814 – 18/14 – eighteen fourteen

If there is a 0 in the ten position, we usually pronounce it ‘oh’. For example:

1908 – nineteen oh eight

1409 – fourteen oh nine

Compare to:

1980 – nineteen eighty

1490 – fourteen ninety

For years after 2000, we usually pronounce the whole number:

2002 – two thousand and two

2010 – two thousand and ten (a more informal way is to say twenty ten)  

Kings and Queens         

When Kings and Queens have numbers after their names, we pronounce them as ordinal numbers with the word ‘the’ in front. For example:

Henry VIII – Henry the eighth

Louis XII – Louis the twelfth

Telling the time

Watch the following video about telling the time...UK style.  Afterwards, we'll go over the minor differences with American English.

Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3icBxO6Wjz0

American English examples

10:00  It's ten o'clock
10:05  It's ten oh five OR It's five after 10.
10:15  It's ten fifteen or a quarter AFTER 10
10:40  It's ten forty OR It's 20 'til 11.
10:30   It's ten thirty

If the person knows about what hour it is, you can say It's 20 'til. instead of saying It's 20 "til 11.

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Adverbs

Spotting an Adverb: end in "-ly"

Examples include:

• Willfully
• Abruptly
• Endlessly
• Firmly
• Delightfully
• Quickly
• Lightly
• Eternally
• Delicately
• Wearily
• Sorrowfully
• Beautifully
• Truthfully 

Other examples of adverbs would be words that how something was done or the manner in which it was done. These would be words like:

• Uneasily
• Weirdly
• Cheerfully
• Expertly
• Wholeheartedly
• Randomly
• Brutally
• Really
• Briskly
• Sloppily
• Wickedly

Tell Where Action Happened

Some adverbs tell the place of an action, or where it occurred. Adverbs like this would be:

• Here
• There
• Everywhere
• Somewhere
• In
• Inside
• Underground
• Out
• Outside
• Upstairs
• Downstairs

Tell When Action Happened

Examples of adverbs that tell when an action occurred, or its time, include:

• Now
• First
• Last
• Early
• Yesterday
• Tomorrow
• Today
• Later
• Regularly
• Often
• Never
• Monthly
• Always
• Usually 

Tell the Extent of the Action

Adverbs can describe to what extent something was done or an action was executed, including:

• Very
• Too
• Almost
• Also
• Only
• Enough
• So
• Quite
• Almost
• Rather 

Adverbs Are Intensifiers

One function of adverbs is to intensify the meaning of the word it is modifying. It does this by either putting more or less emphasis on the word, amplifying the meaning of the word, or to toning down the feeling of the word. 

Here are some sentences with the emphasizing adverb underlined:

• I really don’t care.
• He literally wrecked his car.
• I am certain of the facts, for sure.
• You simply don’t understand.
• I so want to go to the concert.

Sentences that amplify would be like:

• She completely rejected his proposal.
• I heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
• I so want that new toy.
• He completely understands me.
• I absolutely refuse to stay here any longer.

Adverbs and adverb phrases that tone down the feeling or mood would include:

• I sort of felt betrayed by you.
• You can improve on this to some extent.
• She kind of likes the movie.
• The boss almost quit his job after that.
• I somewhat understand what you are saying.
• She mildly disapproved of his actions.

Adverb Phrases

Adverb phrases function like adverbs. They can tell when, how, where, and to what extent or purpose. Adverb phrases can start with a preposition.

Some examples of these are:

• With a hammer
• Next door
• Before the holidays
• Every month
• For his mother

Adverb phrases can also start with the infinitive form of a verb, like in these examples: to buy a car, to support the team, or to show her mother.  

Here is a list of other adverb phrases:

• In the north of Germany
• While I was waiting
• Every time he cracked a joke
• Where the students can read it
• As if she were guilty
• Like he owns the place
• As you think you are
• If you have the time
• Although I may lose my job
• Since it is your birthday

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Transitional words and phrases

Using transitional words and phrasehelps papers read more smoothly, and at the same time allows the reader to flow more smoothly from one point to the next.

Transitions enhance logical organization and understandability
and improve the connections between thoughts. They indicate relations,
whether within a sentence, paragraph, or paper.

This list illustrates categories of "relationships" between ideas,followed by words and phrases that can make the connections:

Addition:
also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly

When there is a trusting relationship coupled with positive reinforcement, the partners will be able to overcome difficult situations.

Consequence:
accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose,
hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore

Highway traffic came to a stop as a result of an accident that morning.

Contrast and Comparison:
contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise,
on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather,
similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast

The children were very happy. On the other hand, and perhaps more importantly, their parents were very proactive in providing good care.

Direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above,
to the left, to the right, in the distance

She scanned the horizon for any sign though in the distance she could not see the surprise coming her way.

Diversion:
by the way, incidentally

He stumbled upon the nesting pair incidentally found only on this hill.

Emphasisabove all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly

The Quakers gathered each month with attention to deciding the business of their Meeting.

Exception:
aside from, barring, beside, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save

Consensus was arrived at by all of the members exclusive of those who could not vote.

Exemplifying:chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely,
particularly, including, specifically, such as

Some friends and I drove up the beautiful coast chiefly to avoid the heat island of the city.

Generalizing:
as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually

There were a few very talented artists in the class, but for the most part the students only wanted to avoid the alternative course.

Illustration:
for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration,
illustrated with, as an example, in this case

The chapter provided complex sequences and examples illustrated with a very simple schematic diagram.

Similarity:
comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with

The research was presented in a very dry style though was coupled with examples that made the audience tear up.

Restatement:
in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently

In their advertising business, saying things directly was not the rule. That is to say, they tried to convey the message subtly though with creativity.

Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time,
for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on,
meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier,
simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind,

The music had a very retro sound but at the same time incorporated a complex modern rhythm.

Summarizing:
after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event,
in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis,
in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally

She didn't seem willing to sell the car this week, but in any case I don't get paid until the end of the month.